Visual essay

Music video: Kodaline- Honest

Lyrics-

We don’t communicate can you not say what’s on your mind?
And I see it every day you hide the truth behind your eyes.
Honestly, there’s no need for you to hide.
Talk to me, can’t you see? I’m on your side.

Honest, honest.
Say what it is you’re trying to say,
But if you lie to me again.
I'll be the one that walks away.
Is it in you to be honest? Honest.
Is it in you to be honest?

I still remember the day we met I was hanging on your every word.
I didn't think I would ever let somebody see into my world.
Honestly, can’t you see? I’m on your side.

Say what it is you’re trying to say,
But if you lie to me again.
I'll be the one that's walking away.
Is it in you to be honest? Honest.
Is it in you to be honest?

Is it all in my head or was it something I said?
Because I’m trying to forgive, and now I’m trying to forget,
You’re telling me all of this, no more hearing of it,
was all just a lie, was it all just a lie?
Now I’m walking away cause everything that you say
All that you ever tell to me is lies, lies.

Honest, honest. Is it in you to be honest?
Say what it is you’re trying to say,
But if you lie to me again.
I'll be the one that walks away.
Is it in you to be honest?
Honest. Is it in you to be honest?
Is it in you to be honest?

The theme of this song and video is betrayal in a relationship which is shown through the lyrics:
"But if you lie to me again, i'll be the one that walks away" and  " I see it everyday you hide the truth behind your eyes".

Narrative theories

Boardwell and Thompson (1997) -

Boardwell and Thompson's theory suggested that Narrative = Story + Plot. The theory says that the story (What happens) consists of inferred events and explicitly shown events and that the plot (How we are shown what happens) consists of explicitly shown events ans non-diegetic material. Inferred events are the events that are not explicitly shown in the media text but are implied by the media text for the audience to infer. They are often quote obvious otherwise it would make the media text much more difficult for the audience to understand.
Explicitly shown events are things that actually appear in the media text. These events paired with the inferred events and the non-diegetic material create meaning in the media text for the audience to consume. The explicitly shown events may not always be immediately obvious what the meaning is behind them until the media text is analysed. Non-diegetic material is material that is not a part of the performance of the song or outside of the narrative.For some music videos that do not contain performance this can simply be the music playing over the narrative. 

An example of this narrative theory is The beautiful south – Song for whoever.

Inferred events – The band forms and begins thinking about writing songs and performing them. They come up with the idea for song for whoever and begin writing it.

Explicitly shown events – Performance: The band are shown performing the song showing that it is aware of itself as a media text. The band eat the blancmange at the end of the video.

Non-diegetic material - The audition for the blancmange is part of the story but not part of the performance. The blancmange becoming famous and the band losing credit for the song. The blancmange is a commentary on the modern music industry as it can be moulded into whatever they want it to be just like the modern music industry.

The theory can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:

Inferred events – The two people in the story became a couple and have been keeping secrets from each other but conflict arises due to the keeping of the secrets.

Explicitly shown events- Performance by Kodaline which is shown by the appearance of musical instruments and other paraphernalia as part of the mise-en-scene as the band sing the song in the shot showing that it is aware of itself as a media text.

(Screenshots)

The couple in the story are part of a conflict after being happy. This is shown in the lyrics “Now I’m walking away cause everything that you say
All that you ever tell to me is lies.” and “I still remember the day we met I was hanging on your every word. I didn't think I would ever let somebody see into my world”.

Non-diegetic material - The story of the couple as they are not part of the performance of the song so therefore the band are unaware of the narrative at that point in time making the story non-diegetic material.

Tim O'Sullivan (1998)-

In Tim O'Sullivan narrative theory he argues that all media texts tell us some kind of story. He also argues that through careful mediation, media texts offer a way of telling stories about ourselves, not usually our own personal stories, but the story of us as a culture or set of cultures. His narrative theory sets out to show that what we experience when we “read” a story is to understand a particular set of values, conventions, and constructions, and that it is important to be aware of how these constructions are put together. The ideology in the media texts can be de-constructed to look at values.

This can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:

In western culture ideology a couple would be monogamous and work together. In this music video we are shown a couple that have been keeping secrets and lying to each other, specifically the antagonist is shown to have been cheating on his girlfriend which does not conform to the western ideologies of the “perfect couple” and how a couple should behave towards one another. The antagonist being unfaithful to his girlfriend is shown as bad as the couple are seen fighting in dark and artificial lighting which creates a negative tone to the video but happy and loving during the daylight at a beach which creates a positive tone. The band themselves who are performing the song are also seen at night in dark lighting singing the lyrics:

“Say what it is you’re trying to say,
But if you lie to me again.
I'll be the one that's walking away.
Is it in you to be honest?”
Which is also an example of how the negative mood is created in relation to him cheating on his girlfriend. In addition to this other mise-en-scene is used such as darker clothing when the couple are arguing which reinforces the ideas already portrayed in the music video.
In Tim O'sullivan's narrative theory he states that when we 'read' a story or in this case watch the music video we need to experience an understanding of the values, conventions, and constructions shown in the media text. In this media text these values, conventions and constructions are shown through the ideology of a perfect couple and by portraying the opposite as negative, the audience understands that these ideas are what the music video is trying to show.

This music video promotes the ideologies of a good couple as it shows secret keeping in a negative way and the couple as harmonious in a positive way by using the conventions of a media text e.g. mise-en-scene and cinematography. This is an application of Tim O'Sullivan's narrative theory as the video “tells a story about ourselves as a culture” in the way the ideological couple would behave towards each other in our culture compared to how western culture believes they should not behave towards eachother. This shows that Tim O'sullivan's narrative theory can be applied to this music video to explain the narrative.

Todorov (1969)-

Tzvetan Todorov's theory suggests that media texts such as music videos follow a narrative pattern. The narrative starts with the establishment of a protagonist and an antagonist both in equilibrium and no conflict is present in the narrative at this point in the media text. A disruption then occurs in the narrative such as a conflict between the antagonist and the protagonist removing the equilibrium which leads to a quest to repair the disruption. This is often the largest part of the narrative in the media text. The quest then results in the resolution and re-equilibrium. However the equilibrium is not the same as the initial equilibrium as something in the narrative changes during the disruption and the quest. Todorov argued that this narrative theory could be applied to any film and that they would all contain these stages in the narrative structure.

An example of this theory  is the music video for Bob Dylan's Beyond here lies nothin'.

In this music video Both the protagonist and antagonist characters start in equilibrium. We are first introduced to the antagonist and after the disruption the protagonist is identified although we are aware that they exist before the disruption due to evidence in the video showing that more than one person is in the apartment. The equilibrium is then disrupted which is shown by the head turn by the antagonist and the expression on the antagonists face.This shows that he believes something is not right and will lead to a quest to solve it. The quest is then shown by the antagonist and the protagonist fighting (and at some points nearly killing each other) as the woman tries to escape the apartment and him. In the fight there is never a clear winner as when they each in turn hurt each other they get up again and resume fighting.  The resolution then occurs when she escapes but then returns after beginning to drive away and kisses the antagonist bringing re-equilibrium as something has changed but there is again equilibrium. The overall theme in the video is love shown by the first lyrics to the song - “oh well I love you pretty baby, you're the only love I've ever known”.

                                                                                                                                              

This Theory can be applied to the narrative in Honest by Kodaline:

At the beginning of the narrative both characters are established as the antagonist and protagonist which is shown by the protagonist looking upset with the antagonist assumed to have caused the upset. The narrative is then disrupted when they let go of each other’s hands indicating and argument or conflict between the couple. The quest is then shown as it shows flashbacks from when the couple first met and were happy and them fighting whilst another woman appears implying that the antagonist had cheated on the protagonist the couple fighting and the image of the protagonist hen sat outside the car with the antagonist in the car brought back  re-equilibrium as the protagonist is assumed to have broken up with the antagonist.

Pam Cook (1985)-

In Pam Cook's narrative theory she suggests that a narrative structure should three factors. They should all have:

-Linearity of cause an effect within an overall trajectory of enigma resolution. The linearity of cause and effect is when the cause and effect are shown in a specific order beginning with the cause and then showing the effects,result, or consequences of the actions in the narrative.

-A high degree of narrative closure A high degree of narrative closure requires a clear ending to the narrative. This ending can be shown by a conclusion in the music video which is made very clear to the audience watching it through the use of cinematography, and mise-en-scene.

-A fictional world that contains verisimilitude especially governed by spatial temporal coherence. Despite the narrative in a music video being fictional, Pam Cook suggests that it has to contain verisimilitude to be successful. Verisimilitude is when the music video contains realistic features through the use of mise-en-scene.
According to Pam Cook's narrative theory all of these factors should be in a narrative from a media text. In this case a music video.

This theory can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:

The video has linearity of cause and effect that is required by Pam Cook's narrative theory. This is shown in the video as it first shows the couple happy and loving enjoying time together at the beach. It then changes to show them letting go of each others hands and fighting as the shot changes to another woman with the antagonist which implies he had cheated on the protagonist. This then results in her finally leaving him shown at the end with her and him both on their own. This shows linearity of cause and effect. The video also has a high degree of narrative closure as it is made clear at the end through the use of cinematography and mise-en-scene that the couple have split up. This being made clear to the audience shows a high degree of narrative closure.
The fictional world in the video also contains verisimilitude which is shown through the mise-en-scene in the video. An example of this is the date at the beach. As this is a common date location it makes the video more realistic. Another example of this is the clothing used int he video. In each of the situations in the video the clothing that the characters are wearing are clothes that are realistic in those situations. This increases the verisimilitude of the music video and therefore demonstrates the narrative theory Pam Cook suggested.

Sven Carlsson (1999)-

Sven Carlsson's narrative theory suggests that narratives can consist of three components-

• Performance
• Narrative (story)
• conceptual/Abstract

The performance element is when the band or artist is seen performing the song in the music video. This is shown by the presence of props such as musical instruments and microphone. The band or artist will also clearly be singing the song and often acknowledges the presence of the camera in the music video.The story element shows a meaning to the song by telling a story to illustrate the lyrics. This element will not be a part of the performance of the song and is often done with actors who are acting out a story line to give greater more obvious meaning to the lyrics of the song making it easier for the lyrics to be understood by the audience. The story is an important part of the narrative as it is an area that the audience may also be able to relate to which can boost the popularity of the video as people watch it more often for different reasons and make it more successful.  The conceptual/abstract element is something else in the video that is often attempting to be more artistic and different to create a certain mood. This is often done with special effects, filters, and other techniques that can give the song and narrative more meaning and therefore i more relatable to the audience which would also make the music video and the song more successful.

This theory can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:

performance- The band can be seen throughout the video performing the song in between the narrative and showing that the video is aware of itself as a media text by looking directly at the camera. The narrative is shown by the presence of musical instruments and the band clearly singing the song in the video.

Narrative (story)- In the video there is a couple who's story is told by actors to illustrate the song lyrics e.g. When it is shown that the antagonist has cheated on the protagonist the lyrics are:

“Is it all in my head or was it something I said?
Because I’m trying to forgive, and now I’m trying to forget,
You’re telling me all of this, no more hearing of it,
was all just a lie, was it all just a lie?
Now I’m walking away cause everything that you say
All that you ever tell to me is lies, lies”
The story is shown as it is separate from the narrative and relates to the lyrics easily.

Conceptual/abstract - In the video at one point it looks as if it is being viewed through a kaleidoscope which is created by lighting effects. This may be trying to show that something is wrong or is going to go wrong and as a couple they are confused are are going to be confused what they are going to do next which is represented by the blurred colours. It may also represent the idea that the protagonist is unknowingly being pushed out of the picture as her boyfriend is cheating on her. This is shown as the blurred colours kaleidoscope effect covers most of her face with her smiling behind it. This use of effects shows conceptual/abstract use as it uses an abstract techniques to create meaning in the video that is not a part of the performance of narrative.

Kate Domaille (2001)-

Kate Domaille's narrative theory suggests that every story ever told (including narratives in media texts) can be fitted into one of eight narrative types.  The narrative theory also suggests that each of these narrative types has a source, an original story upon which the others are based. These are the eight narrative types:

1.Achilles- The Achilles story is of a hero who is trained and made invincible, however as he is immersed in the water that makes him this way he is held by his heel which makes this his weak point. The narrative type of Achilles is that there is a fatal flaw that eventually ensures the heroes defeat.

2.Cinderella- The story of Cinderella is known by almost everybody as the poor orphan girl living with her stepmother and two evil stepsisters. She is treated badly until her fairy godmother arrives and gives her the things she needs to go to the kings ball at which he is trying to find his son a wife. The prince dances with Cinderella all night and when she hurriedly leaves at midnight she leaves a slipper behind. He searches for her and eventually finds her, marries her and her life becomes better. This narrative type is about the idea of having a dream come true after a struggle.

3.Candide- Candide is a short novel by the author Voltaire. It begins with a young man living a sheltered life whilst being indoctrinated with optimism by his mentor Professor Pangloss. Candide slowly becomes disillusioned as he witnesses and experiences the great hardships of the world. This narrative type is the idea of an indomitable hero who can not be put down.

4.Circe- In Greek mythology Circe is the God of magic. She is by most accounts the sister of Pasiphae who was the mother of the Minotaur and the wife of King Minos. She was renowned for her knowledge of herbs and potions and through the use of a wand or staff she transformed those who offended her or her enemies into animals. This narrative type describes the chase in which the person being chased is eventually caught ( though not necessarily turned into an animal as in this story).

5.Orpheus- Orpheus comes from Greek mythology and his most famous story describes how his wife Eurydice fell into a nest of vipers attempting to escape a Satyr on her wedding day. She suffered a fatal ankle bite and died. Orpheus being famous for his music travelled to the underworld and softened the hearts of the God of the underworld Hades and the queen of the underworld Persephone who was kidnapped from her father Zeus by Hades with his music. Nobody had ever done this before and they agreed to let Eurydice go back to Earth on the condition that he walk in front of her the whole way and not look back until they are both out of the underworld. As he reached Earth her became anxious and looked back making Eurydice disappear forever. This narrative type describes the loss of something personal.

6.Romeo and Juliet- Romeo and Juliet is a famous love story by the playwright William Shakespeare, In which two teenagers from feuding families (the Montagues and the Capulets) fall in love. They get married in secret but as Juliet's cousin Tybalt then kills Romeo's best friend Mercutio, Romeo then kills Tybalt and is banished from Verona where they live to Mantua. The priest that married Romeo and Juliet then gives Juliet a potion to make her appear dead so she does not have to marry Paris. The letter explaining this to Romeo does not reach him and he kills himself believing Juliet to be dead. Upon waking up Juliet discovers him dead and kills herself. This narrative type describes a love story.

7.Tristan and Iseult- Tristan and Iseult is a story of Tristan who travels to Ireland to bring back Iseult to marry his uncle Kind Mark. On the way there they drink a love potion and instantly fall in love. Although Iseult marries Kind Mark she continues an affair with Tristan. Eventually they are discovered by King Mark and punished. This narrative type describes a love triangle.

8.Faust- Faust is the protagonist of a classic German legend. He is a scholar who is highly successful yet dissatisfied with his life, which leads him to make a pact with the Devil, exchanging his soul for unlimited knowledge and worldly pleasures.Faust is bored and depressed with his life as a scholar. After an attempt to take his own life, he calls on the Devil for further knowledge and magic powers with which to indulge all the pleasure and knowledge of the world. In response, the Devil's representative, Mephistopheles, appears. He makes a bargain with Faust: Mephistopheles will serve Faust with his magic powers for a set number of years, but at the end of the term, the Devil will claim Faust's soul, and Faust will be eternally damned. The term usually stipulated in the early tales is 24 years; one year for each of the hours in a day.During the term of the bargain, Faust makes use of Mephistopheles in various ways. In many versions of the story, particularly Goethe's drama, Mephistopheles helps Faust seduce a beautiful and innocent girl, usually named Gretchen, whose life is ultimately destroyed. However, Gretchen's innocence saves her in the end, and she enters Heaven. In Goethe's rendition, Faust is saved by God's grace via his constant striving—in combination with Gretchen's pleadings with God in the form of the Eternal Feminine. However, in the early tales, Faust is irrevocably corrupted and believes his sins cannot be forgiven; when the term ends, the Devil carries him off to Hell. This narrative type is a metaphor for bargaining something valuable in exchange for something else with negative consequences (selling your soul to the devil).

This theory can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:

The music video for this song fits into the Tristan and Iseult narrative type as a love triangle is present. The woman in the original couple is in a relationship with the same man as another woman who is not part of the original couple showing the love triangle narrative type as the second woman is not a part of the original couple. This shows that the Kate Domaille's narrative theory can be applied to the music video for Honest by Kodaline.

Representation theories

Laura Mulvey (1975): Male gaze -

The theory deals with how an audience views the people presented in the media product.

Feminists think of it in 3 ways-

1. How men view women
2. How women view themselves
3. How women view other women

Laura Mulvey's theory puts focus on “ Visual pleasure and narrative cinema”. Her studies were based on how women are viewed as sexual objects initially in Hollywood films.

According to her theory, the male gaze occurs when an audience is put into the perspective of a heterosexual male. Scenes may focus on the curves of a woman's body. However the theory only applies if these curves are highlighted by conventions such as slow motion , camera movement, and cutaways. The theory suggests that the “female only exists in relation to the male” and that the “male gaze denies women human identity”. They are seen as objects to “ be admired for their physical appearance”.

Women seen as sexual objects is still evident in more modern media texts including music videos and films. Examples of this in modern media texts include Mr Brightside by The Killers and She's so lovely by Scouting for girls.

This theory can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:

The Male gaze theory is often less evident in the music genre that Honest is in as the genre often cares more about the actual music than following conventions that other genres such as pop follow, However the male gaze theory can still be applied to some elements of the video which is unconventional for this genre but shows that Laura Mulvey's theory can be widely applied to other media texts other than the initial Hollywood films that she studied and applied the theory to. The first example in the video where Laura Mulvey's Male gaze theory can be applied is that at some points in the video the two women that are part of the narrative are seen in their underwear with the woman the antagonist has been cheating on the protagonist with, seen crawling towards the antagonist. These shots use techniques such as lighting and camera angles that focus on the fact that the women are in their underwear which shows Laura Mulveys's theory can be applied to this video. In the video there is also a close up of the woman the antagonist has been cheating on the protagonist with's face putting focus on her facial features and her make-up which can also be argued to support Laura Mulvey's male gaze theory as it emphasizes the way she looks which can be seen as something to judge from a heterosexual males point of view. In another shot a woman is seen with her back to the camera wearing underwear dancing against the wall with almost all the lighting focusing on her and her curves. This draws attention to this feature of her body which can be seen as for the entertainment of heterosexual males one of which is seen in the video looking at her as she dances which supports the male gaze  theory. The antagonist is also seen kissing a woman's neck in the video whilst she is in her underwear with the lighting and camera angle drawing attention to this. She is also in the frame more than the antagonist which means she may be the main focus of the shot which also supports the theory. Throughout the video the antagonist male is seen with no fewer clothes than his shirt off whereas both women can be seen with no clothes on down to their underwear in some shots which shows that the aim of the shots is that more attention should be paid to their lack of clothes than his. This is also supported by the fact that the lighting emphasizes the women more in these shots which supports the male gaze theory. Although the Male gaze theory can only loosely apply to the music video for this song it is still evident at some points in the video which supports the idea that women are viewed as sexual objects as at some points in this video the audience is put into the perspective of a heterosexual male. The lack of clothes in some of the shots shows that the women are only admired for their physical appearance.

Tessa Perkins: Stereotypes-

Tessa Perkins suggested that stereotyping is not a simple process and contains a number of assumptions that can be challenged.

Tessa Perkins identifies 5 assumptions:

1. Stereotypes are not always negative ( e.g. the French are good cooks).
2. They are not always about minority groups or the less powerful (e.g. upper class twits).
3. They can be held about one's own group.
4. They are not rigid or unchanging.
5. They are not always false.

Stereotypes are not always negative: People assume that all stereotypes are negative e.g. Hooded youths, However youth can also be seen as a good thing.

They are not always about minority groups or the less powerful: People assume that stereotypes are aimed towards the less powerful and minority groups, however stereotypes exist about other groups and the more powerful as well such as the stereotype about the upper class as being " stuck up ".

They can be held about ones own group: Within our own group we stereotype people to different identities e.g. within college there are the drama students and the sport students who both have different identities and are stereotyped based on these.

Groups within Wyke sixth form college:

They are not rigid or unchanging: While stereotypes are not easy to change Perkins states that over a period of time they can be changed e.g. Miley Cyrus.


They are not always false: Stereotypes must contain so truth otherwise the representation and ideology would not exist in the first place.

The implications of stereotypes:
Stereotypes are always erroneous in context and are negative concepts. They are about groups which we have little or no social contact with ; by implication therefore they are not held about ones own group - that's a stereotype of  a stereotype so it struggles to be reliable or believable.
Stereotypes are about minority or repressed groups. Most of the time creating negative representation of the lower class possibly giving the upper class more power.
People either 'hold' stereotypes of a group (believe them to be true) or do not. This can lead to negative behaviour or wrong assumptions. Because someone holds a stereotype of a group, his or her behaviour towards a member of that group can be predicted. This can lead to unfair treatment of members or society. Stereotypes are an invaluable aid to understanding the world and all stereotypes must have a bit of truth or they would not have such an influence. 

This theory can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:
This theory can be applied to this music video with the idea that stereotypes are not rigid or unchanging. There is an old stereotype of girls with blonde hair being more stupid than other girls with hair of other colours, the "dumb blonde". This video shows a change in this stereotype as the protagonist in the narrative has blonde hair yet is shown as smart enough to make her own decisions and knows what is best for her. She eventually chooses to leave her boyfriend after she discovers he cheated on her. This illustrates Tessa Perkins' theory.

Richard Dyer: Star theory-
Richard Dyer states that:

“stars are commodities that are produced by institutions”

“A star is a constructed image, represented across a range of media and mediums”


“stars represent and embody certain ideologies”

Richard Dyer developed the idea that the viewers perception of a film is heavily influenced by the perception of it's stars, and that publicity materials and reviews determine the way that audiences experience a media text.
With this idea in mind, He analysed critics writing, magazines, advertising and the films themselves, to explore the significance of stardom.
According the Richard Dyer a star is an image not a real person they are constructed, as any other aspect of fiction is, using a range of materials and methods e.g. advertising, magazines and featuring in films and music products.
Richard Dyer states that icons and celebrities are constructed by institutions for financial gain and target one specific audience/group of people to make profit.

Stars create a persona that is desirable to a target audience but is not actually a true representation of themselves. It is a constructed identity and ideology to make society want to consume them.  
Richard Dyer’s Star Theory is the idea that icons and celebrities are constructed by institutions for financial reasons and are built to target a specific audience or group of people. Dyer’s theory can be broken down in to 4 key components:

• Stars as constructions 
• Audience and industry/institution
• Ideology and culture
• Character and personality 

Stars as constructions:

Stars are constructed, artificial images, even if they are represented as being "real people", experiencing real emotions etc. It helps if their image contains a unique selling proposition so that they can be copied and/or parodied because of it Their representation may be image associated .e.g. Michael Jackson's glove.

Pop stars have the advantage over film stars in that their constructed image may be much more consistent over a period of time, and is not dependent on the creative input of others (e.g. screenwriters writing their lines).

Audience and institution:
Stars are manufactured by the music industry to serve a purpose — to make money out of audiences, who respond to various elements of a star persona by buying records and becoming fans. Record companies nurture and shape their stars  as the TV talent show processes have shown us. They tend to manufacture what they think audiences want, hence the photocopied nature of many boy bands. The institution want to make money out of their constructed stars and create constructs of stars they believe an audience want to copy e.g. Lady Gaga.

Stars represent shared cultural values and attitudes to promote a certain ideology and this is also what makes them a ‘star’ by having  such a powerful influence an audience.

By making an audience want to mimic stars qualities and conform to their ideologies and promote their attitude, audiences mimic their favorite artists. 

Ideology and culture:

Stars represent shared cultural values and attitudes that promotes a certain ideology about themselves as an artist and what they want an audience to see what they believe in.

By having dominant desirable ideologies it allows the audience to see their star qualities and make them more desirable. 

Conveying their beliefs and opinions out side music and film helps a celebrity create a star persona e.g. Angelina Jolie and her charity work.

Character and personality:

Richard Dyer says stars provide audiences with ‘ideas of what people are supposed to be like’ and because of this audiences feel the need to conform to these constructions. 

A star creates a character based on themselves and what they feel the audience want to consume they promote an image what they feel is desirable for an audience.

He states they are constructs of what an audience wants to consume. They are a construction of themselves (not a real identity).

This theory can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:

This theory can be applied to Kodaline in this music video as they are singing about a betrayal in a relationship in a negative way. This reflects the ideology of faithful, loyal relationships. This is what the institution believes the audience want to hear and see. The negative attitude towards cheating in the video reflects the views of most of the audience giving Kodaline a good image. However Richard Dyer's theory states that just because you are a celebrity does not make you a star. Kodaline, although they are increasing in popularity and becoming more famous, are still unheard of by many people. As they are only minor celebrities now it is impossible to label them stars which means that although the ideas can loosely be applied to the music video, the theory itself can not be applied as it is not relevant.

Audience theories

Stuart Hall: Reception theory - 
The reception theory states that media texts are encoded by the producer meaning that whoever produces the text fills the product with values and messages. The text is then decoded by spectators. Different spectators will decode the text in different ways, not always in the way the producer intended.

The dominant reading of a text is that the audience view the media text in the way the producer intended.The audience agree with the ideology and message behind the text. The audience will view the message in the way the producer wanted them to.The ideal consumption has been met and the institution happy.

The negotiated reading is a compromise between the dominant and oppositional readings, the audience accepts the views of the producer but also has their own input and understanding in relation to the text. They do not agree or disagree, they however can see the point being made in relation to the reading yet still have their own opinion. For e.g. they understand what the institution want the message to be and how they are supposed to consume the text, however they do not fully conform with the message.

The oppositional reading is when the audience rejects the preferred reading and create their own reading of the text. The audience reject the meaning fully as they do not agree with the message created for the audience. The audience reject the message fully and interpret the text in the wrong way, they may be offended, upset and fail to see the intended message from the institution.

An audience may have a Dominant understanding of a product if :

•The media text has clear messages

•The audience is the same age so relates to product better

•The audience are from the same culture as the media text

•The media text has an easy to understand narrative and they can relate to the narrative in some way.

•The content of the media text is relevant to society

•The audience are choosing to consume the product so must have a reason to like it in the first place

The audience may have a Negotiated understanding of a product if :

•The audience may not have had the same life experiences as displayed in the media text

•The audience may not understand the narrative in relation so therefore cannot relate to it in the intended way.

•Differences in the audiences age group may vary the reading and understanding.

•The audience do not understand all of the messages in the media text making it unclear what the dominant reading is supposed to be.

The audience may have an Oppositional understanding of a product if:

•The product has controversial themes

•The audience disagree with the messages in the video

•The audience may Dis-like the genre

•The audience has no understanding of the narrative structure or they cannot relate to the narrative structure

•The content of the media text is not reflective of society and it's values.

•Different cultures have different understandings so an audience from one culture may take an oppositional reading whereas another culture would not.

This theory can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:
The audience of the music video may have a dominant understanding of the intended message of the media product. This may be because the media product has a clear message which is shown through the use of mise-en-scene and cinematography. The audience the music video is aimed at is also a similar age to the characters in the music video. This may mean that this audience interprets the message of the video in the way that was intended. However some of the audience may have a negotiated understanding of the message. This may be because those viewing the video have not experienced the same situation as the characters. The audience may also not be the intended age group as the group of people that listen to Kodaline are varied in age, from teenagers to older people. The people who listen to them are also equally male and female. The product may have an oppositional reading by some of it's audience.This may be due to some of the audience disliking the genre of the song. This may happen as people who have liked Kodaline before their second album will have noticed a change in style and genre of some of their songs. The audience may only want to listen to the songs on the new album that are similar to their previous album so may take an oppositional understanding as they don't listen to the whole song or watch the whole video so will not receive the whole message.

Blumler and Katz: Uses and gratifications- 

The uses and gratifications model represented a change in thinking, as researchers began to describe the effects of the media from the point of view of audiences. The model looks at the motives of the people who use the media, asking why we watch television programmes/films/media products in the way in which we do, why we bother to read newspapers, why we find ourselves so compelled to keep up to date with our favourite soap, or consume films. The theory makes the audience active as they choose what they want to consume, they are not forced in to consumption for e.g. You only watch the films you want as you are in control of your own choices. The media simply creates the product.

The theory argued that audience needs have social and psychological needs which generate certain expectations about the mass media and what they are exposed to. As the audience is the active participant it allows them to make choices in relation to what they consume making oneself in control of what they consume. This does assume an active audience making motivated choices making the audience in control of their own consumerism. 

The underlying idea behind the model is that people are motivated by a desire to fulfil, or gratify certain needs. So rather than asking how the media uses us, the model asks how we use the media.

The model is broken down into four different needs.

1) Surveillance: The surveillance need is based around the idea that people feel better having the feeling that they know what is going on in the world around them. (we watch the news as we feel it is a reliable source of information and it makes us feel secure that we know what is happening around us)

The surveillance model is all about awareness. We use the mass media to be more aware of the world, gratifying a desire for knowledge and security. When we watch some thing that reassures the audience and the consumer becomes rather passive and accepting of what they are consuming.

We use the media to be helpful in our every day activities e.g. the news and weather

Social media can influence how this concept works as fake stories are created giving  false sense of security. 

2) Personal Identity: Personal identity explains how being a subject of the media allows us to confirm the identity and positioning of ourselves within society.

The use of the media for forming personal identity can be seen in music videos/films. Pop stars can often become big role models, inspiring young children everywhere (which is why there's such an outcry when one of them does something wrong).

Personal identity when consuming a media product allows us to associate and relate to the product directly making us feel gratified in one way or another making us understand that we share our identities making us feel ‘normal/ and accepted.

Different genres allow people to identify in different ways to different elements. 

3) Personal Relationships: This section comes in two parts: Relationships with the Media & Using the Media Within Relationships.

We can form a relationship with the media, and also use the media to form a relationship with others.

Many people use the television as a form of companionship. This may seem sad, but think about how many times you've watched the TV on your own, or with other people but sitting in silence.

The television is often quite an intimate experience, and by watching the same people on a regular basis we can often feel very close to them, as if we even know them. When characters in a soap or film die, those who have watched that person a lot often grieve for the character, as if they have lost a friend. 

Another aspect to the personal relationships model is how we can sometimes use the media as a springboard to form and build upon relationships with real people.

 Having a favourite TV programme in common can often be the start of a conversation, and can even make talking to strangers that much easier.

Some studies suggest that some families use sitting around watching the television as a stimulus for conversation, talking to each other about the programme or related anecdotes while it is on. (take goggle-box for example) 

4) Diversion: The diversion need describes what's commonly termed as escapism - watching the television so we can forget about our own lives and problems for a while and think about something else.

We watch music videos/films to take our mind off our every day lives, we want to distract our self from the problems we are experiencing. We want to see that people experience the same feelings as we do and want to forget about our own problems and focus on some one else's.

This theory can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:
The diversion element can be applied as in the video a couple are shown to have problems in their relationship due to the woman's boyfriend cheating on her.This could be used as diversion for the audience who may have problems of their own different or less severe than those in the music video. They may then watch the music video as a method of diversion from their own problems or as part of escapism. This would be an application of the uses and gratifications theory.

Hypodermic needle theory/ effects theory - 

The hypodermic needle theory implied that mass media has a direct, immediate and powerful effect on it's audiences. The mass media in the 1940's and 1950's were perceived as a powerful influence on behaviour change. Several factors contributed to this "strong effects" theory of communication, including the fast rise and  popularisation of industries such as advertising. The theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very large group of people directly and uniformly by 'injecting' them with the appropriate messages designed to trigger a desired response. This hypodermic needle theory suggests a powerful and direct flow of information from the sender to the receiver. The theory suggests that media messages are injected straight into a passive audience which is immediately influenced by the message. It expresses the view that the media is a dangerous means of communicating an ideas because the receiver or audience is powerless to resist the impact of the message.

An example of this is the "Panic broadcast" of the War of the worlds on the radio:

More evidence for this theory is a Psychological study by Bandura (1961). This study was part of Social learning theory and involved children observing adults in a room with a Bobo doll. Some of the adults would hit the Bobo doll and fight with it and others would ignore it. Children were then placed in the same situation. Some had observed the adults fighting with the Bobo doll and others had observed the doll being ignores. The results showed that children would copy violent behaviour when they observed it. The study also showed that children are likely to copy the behaviour of their own gender.

Again further evidence for this theory is from the Murder of Jamie Bulger by 2 boys who had seen the film Child's play 3. They were said to have been influenced by a scene in the film, although there was no evidence for this the idea came from the hypodermic needle theory which would say they copied the behaviour they saw in the film as the messages were injected into their minds.

Despite this evidence the theory is now outdated as the evidence is very weak and dates back to before television became popular. Other newer theories have since proved that audiences are not simply passive when consuming media texts but process information in different ways and do not always accept the messages and act on them . They can choose what way they wish to interpret the message and make their own decisions about the media text and it's contents.
This theory can not be applied to Honest by Kodaline:
As the theory is so outdated and conclusively disproved with other theories such as Stuart Hall's Reception theory which shows that people do not simply passively accept the messages in media texts, the theory can not be applied to this music video as the messages in the video will not be accepted immediately by the audience but will be processed and interpreted differently depending on the audiences circumstances.

Genre theories

Genre’ is a critical tool that helps us study texts and audience responses to texts by dividing them into categories based on common elements.

Steve Neale: Dynamic genre -  
All genres have sub genres (genre within a genre).

Thi   means that they are divided up into more specific categories that allow audiences to identify them specifically by their familiar and what become recognisable characteristics (Barry Keith Grant, 1995) However, Steve Neale (1995) stresses that “genres are not ‘systems’ they are processes of systematisation”  i.e. They are dynamic and evolve over time. This is evident in the below example of the Western genre.

Jason Mittell: Cultural categories - 
Jason Mittell (2001) argues that genres are cultural categories that surpass the boundaries of media texts and operate within industry, audience, and cultural practices as well. In short, industries use genre to sell products to audiences. Media producers use familiar codes and conventions that very often make cultural references to their audiences knowledge of society or other texts. Genre also allows audiences to make choices about what products they want to consume through acceptance in order to fulfil a particular pleasure.

Rick Altman: Genre pleasure -

Genre theorist Rick Altman (1999) argues that genre offers audiences ‘a set of pleasures’.

• Emotional Pleasures: The emotional pleasures offered to audiences from genre films are particularly significant when they generate a strong audience response.
• Visceral Pleasures: Visceral pleasures (‘visceral’ refers to internal organs) are ‘gut’ responses and are defined by how the film’s stylistic construction elicits a physical effect upon its audience. This can be a feeling of revulsion, kinetic speed, or a ‘roller coaster ride’.
• Intellectual Puzzles: Certain film genres such as the thriller or the ‘whodunit’ offer the pleasure in trying to unravel a mystery or a puzzle. Pleasure is derived from deciphering the plot and forecasting the end or the being surprised by the unexpected.

Postmodern style - 

This theory states that music video is a medium intended to appeal directly to youth subcultures by reinforcing generic elements of musical genres.

•They are called pop-promos as they are used to promote a band or artist.

•Music videos are postmodern texts whose main purpose is to promote a star persona (Dyer, 1975).

•They don’t have to be literal representations of the song or lyrics.

Nicholas Abercrombie: Hybrid genres - 
Nicholas Abercrombie suggested that the boundaries between genres are shifting and becoming more permeable. He is concerned with television which he suggests seems to be engaged in a "steady dismantling of genre."

David Buckingham: Genre as change - 

David Buckingham (1993) argues that 'genre is not Simply "given" by the culture but rather, it is in a constant process of negotiation and change’.

These theories can not be applied to Honest by Kodaline:

These theories can not be applied to this music video as these theories are mostly referring to film genres. However they can be adapted slightly to be applied to the video, e.g. Jason Mittel can be loosely applied as the video can be argued to be advertising certain places that  some people would see as ideal as a date. This video promotes places like the cinema by using the location in a positive context even though there are very few positive situations in the whole music video. This shows the audience that the cinema is a positive place showing that the genre and music video are making cultural references to western culture and dating.

Language theories

Roland Barthes: semiotics - 
Roland Barthes (1967) noted, Saussure's model of the sign focused on denotation at the expense of connotation and it was left to subsequent theorists (notably Barthes himself) to offer an account of this important dimension of meaning . Barthes argued that in photography connotation can be analytically distinguished from denotation. Related to connotation is what Roland Barthes refers to as myth. For Barthes myths were the dominant ideologies of our time. The 1st and 2nd orders of signification called denotation and connotation combine to produce ideology - which has been described as a third order of signification by Fiske and Hartley (1982). 

Barthes suggested that narrative works with five different codes and the enigma code works to keep up setting problems or puzzles for the audience. His action code (a look, significant word, movement) is based on our cultural and stereotypical understanding of actions that act as a shorthand to advancing the narrative.

Pierce: semiotics -  
According Charles Sanders Pierce (1931), “we think only in signs” .

Signs take the form of words, images, sounds, odours, flavours, acts or objects, but such things have no intrinsic meaning and become signs only when we invest them with meaning. 

“Nothing is a sign unless it is interpreted as a sign” (Pierce, 1931).

Anything can be a sign as long as someone interprets it as 'signifying' something - referring to or standing for something other than itself. We interpret things as signs largely unconsciously by relating them to familiar systems of conventions. It is this meaningful use of signs which is at the heart of the concerns of semiotics. 

He suggested 3 types of sign:

• Icon/iconic: a mode in which the signifier is perceived as resembling or imitating the signified (recognizably looking, sounding, feeling, tasting or smelling like it) - being similar in possessing some of its qualities: e.g. a portrait, a cartoon, a scale-model, onomatopoeia, metaphors, 'realistic' sounds in 'programme music', sound effects in radio drama, a dubbed film soundtrack, imitative gestures.

• Index/indexical: a mode in which the signifier is not arbitrary but is directly connected in some way (physically or causally) to the signified - this link can be observed or inferred: e.g. 'natural signs' (smoke, thunder, footprints, echoes, non-synthetic odours and flavours), medical symptoms (pain, a rash, pulse-rate), measuring instruments (weathercock, thermometer, clock, spirit-level).

• Symbol/symbolic: a mode in which the signifier does not resemble the signified but which is fundamentally arbitrary or purely conventional - so that the relationship must be learnt: e.g. language in general (plus specific languages, alphabetical letters, punctuation marks, words, phrases and sentences), numbers, morse code, traffic lights, national flags.

Fiske and Hartley: Semiotic and representation - 
 Fiske and Hartley argued that the 1st and 2nd orders of signification called denotation and connotation combine to produce ideology this was described as a "third order of signification" by Fiske and Hartley (1982). 


These theories can be applied to Honest by Kodaline:
Language theories such as Pierce can be applied to Honest. Pierce's indexical type of sign can be applied to the video as in the video signifiers such as the couple fighting are not arbitrary but are connected to the idea that the relationship has problems because of cheating. This applies Pierce's semiotics theory to the video